Understanding Aviation Language

Whether you're an experienced pilot, a rookie, or a co-pilot, it's important to understand the language of aviation. Here's a refresher course on pilot speak, along with some interesting facts from the July/August issue of FAA Safety Briefing.

The language of aviation came about from a need for safety. To avoid pilots and controllers mishearing each other and potentially creating an accident, a language of aviation terms and phrases were compiled in the Pilot/Controller Glossary.

The Aviation Alphabet and Numbers

To help avoid confusion with similar sounding consonants and numbers, in March 1956 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) adopted a standard phonetic alphabet for aviation use:

Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Pilots pronounce numbers similar to regular English, with a few exceptions:

• The number three (3) is pronounced "tree."
• The number five (5) is pronounced "fife."
• The number nine (9) is pronounced "niner."

Common Words and Phrases

Here are some words and phrases you might hear, and what they mean.

Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) - ATIS is recorded information on current weather and airport information, such as runways in use. Each ATIS recording has an alpha-numeric designator to distinguish it from the previous message. For example, "ATIS information Foxtrot is current."

Squawk - Squawk refers to an aircraft's transponder code, which can be either a standard code (1200 for visual flight rules - VFR) or a discrete code assigned by Air Traffic Control. Squawk can be used as a noun (Say your assigned squawk), an adjective (Squawk code is 2345), or as a verb (Squawk 5423).

Mayday - Mayday - meaning emergency - is a word that hopefully you won't ever have to use. The word is derived from the French term "m'aider" meaning help me.

Roger - Why do pilots always say Roger when they're done talking? Its origin is from the early days of aviation when we adapted practices from the telegraph industry. Since Morse code telegraph transmissions could be unreliable, the receiver would transmit a single letter "R" when they successfully received a message, so R came to mean that I have received and understood your transmission.

Our pilot forefathers and mothers needed a similar standard response. As it was not possible to transmit a Morse-coded "R," they adopted the word "Roger," which at the time was the phonetic alphabet version of the letter "R," later changed to "Romeo." Today, it is still the simple acknowledgment that a pilot or controller has received and understood your last transmission.

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Importance of Learning the English Language

English training grants you access to knowledge because English is the main language used in international television networks, which can be watched everywhere around the globe. They broadcast news more professionally. Furthermore, English is the main language used in science. According to studies, over 95% of the articles in science are written using the English language. Out of these articles, only 60% of them were derived from English-speaking countries. Other important reasons for learning the English language include:

Easily communicate with people

Those who are able to communicate using the English language can talk with people from around the world. They can read and take part in discussion groups for opinions and ideas. Furthermore, they can communicate via email, which can go a long way in creating a network of online friends. This in turn helps them discover and learn other cultures. Those who are able to communicate with English can also travel more easily. As they travel, they can communicate with people because English is the official language in more than 100 nations around the world. They can ask for direction and easily engage in a conversation in most countries.

Advance your career

If you want a good job, particularly in science, technology or business it is advisable to refine your English. Even if you already have a job, you can secure further by enrolling for English classes. When you have the knowledge of English, your knowledge can be seen on the CV, getting you a desirable job with a good pay. Furthermore, English is a common language of technology, especially in computer science, medicine and genetics. If you are to read and communicate in the technology world, you will have to have an understanding of English. Moreover, if you want to be an excellent businessperson, a better scientist and put your skills to good use, knowledge of the English language, both verbal and written, is paramount.

Enjoy the entertainment industry

Knowledge of English opens many opportunities in the entertainment industry. Apart from paving way for careers in the industry, it can introduce you to a range of different cultures around the world. You can watch most of the movies that are acted originally in English. As a result, you do not have to rely on cheap copies. Furthermore, most of the famous books have been written in English. Therefore, when you have knowledge of English you will be able to get the ideas and feelings being conveyed without having to rely on a translation, which tends to draw away from the intended meaning. There is also lots of music written in English. When you have knowledge of English you are better placed to understand the lyrics, making the music even better.

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Why Learn Languages?

Why learn languages? Why would anyone want to learn someone else's language? Obviously, there are a lot of reasons, and if the question is on your mind, then you probably have a desire or need to learn a language yourself. The answer is often different for people. Put 10 random people together who are learning another language and you will probably have 7 or 8 different reasons and 5 or 6 different languages. Every answer is valid. Every reason is the right reason for that person and every language is the right language. There is no wrong answer to the question 'why learn a language?' and there is no wrong language to learn.

The ability to learn another language is not limited by economic background, ethnic background, nationality, gender, race, religion, age or the grades you got (or are getting) in school. While everyone is different, and we all have differing abilities and strengths, we all have language ability to some degree. Maybe we all aren't going to become great orators or novelists in another language, but we all have the ability to learn, and communicate in other languages.

There is no danger of learning 'too much.' You can't fill up your head with too much language, and there's no danger of you losing knowledge of the languages you already know. In fact, learning a foreign language (or more than one) improves memory, math skills, analytical skills, problem solving and increases critical thinking and creativity. Furthermore and most remarkably, learning a foreign language actually improves our reading, writing, speaking and listening skills in English.

Languages don't just pop up out of nowhere, they evolve from other languages and change over time. Many of the most widely spoken languages are related and share some vocabulary, and even if they aren't, languages are always borrowing words from each other. English is full of words from many other
languages. Learning another language not only gives you new knowledge, but expands upon your existing knowledge of English and gives you a whole new way of understanding it. Furthermore, you begin to learn how to learn languages, making it easier to learn other languages and understand how language and
communication works in general. Other languages are not just a word for word translation of English, but an interpretation of events and opinions from a different point of view.

So, why learn languages? Ok, so there are some benefits. Can learning a language benefit everyone? In a word - Yes. I'm sure if you look around and evaluate your life you will see lots of opportunities to use different languages. We are all surrounded by people who use other languages, or opportunities we could
benefit from by using other languages. The possibilities are there if you look for them.

You may have relatives living in Japan, or you want to visit China. Perhaps you have a life-long desire to see Italy or you are planning a vacation in Argentina, or retirement in Costa Rica. All are valid reasons for learning a language. Learning for travel is one of the most common reasons to learn a language. There are more opportunities to travel today than there have ever been before, and they are likely to increase in the 21st century Global Village.

Many people learn a language to connect with their roots. You may still have relatives living in the 'old country,' or you may just want to define yourself a little bit. Learning the language of our ancestors can help bring us into better contact with ourselves and open up a whole new understanding of ourselves and how we got to be who and where we are.

Do you have a new addition to the family by marriage? Learning even a little of your new family members language can bring both families closer together. Or maybe you're looking for love yourself. Think of the possibilities when you learn another language. The increase in possible social contacts is tremendous when you add a whole new way to communicate. That goes for love, friendship, travel or business.

Learning a language for business is a very common reason. The business opportunities that have arisen in the last few decades have made it almost imperative for a businessperson to have language skills. English may be spoken by many people and it is the language of the internet, but in order to really cultivate
business relationships and get ahead in the business world, language skills are a must. There are a wide variety of industries in which having language ability is a great advantage. It broadens our job skills and career options.

The reasons for students to learn languages are many, and not just because you need it to graduate or get a certain degree. Obviously, improving English skills and overall communication skills are both valuable to students. Improvement of memory, creativity, problem solving ability and analytical skills also are of significant importance to a student. Studies show that bilinguals routinely outperform monolinguals in all areas of testing. Scores for SATs and other tests are shown to be higher for foreign language students, and the longer the foreign language study the higher the average test scores. Having second language skills also makes a student more competitive in the job market.

Learning a language isn't just learning some new grammar concepts, vocabulary and different sounds. It gives insights into other cultures. It creates a more positive attitude toward people who are culturally different and gives us a better understanding of what it's like to be an immigrant. Accomplishing this life skill will give you increased prestige in your own culture and a markedly increased status in other cultures. It's a required skill to become a World Citizen. Ultimately, learning other languages gives us a better
understanding of our own language and our own culture, and a new viewpoint to look at the world in which we live and define our place in it.

One of my favorite quotes about language by Ambrose Bierce :

Belladonna, n.: In Italian a beautiful lady; in English a deadly poison. A striking example of the essential identity of the two tongues.

It's meant to be funny and it reminds us that languages really are different, but it makes me laugh every time I read it. This, to me, also reminds me why I like to learn languages. It's fun! The inner workings of each language are full of little nuggets that are downright enjoyable to learn. So, why learn languages? Lots of the reasons above pertain to me, but my answer is much simpler - because I enjoy it.

Ron is a long-time language enthusiast, exploring Spanish, French, Swedish, Esperanto and others. Learn more about studying a language on your own at Language Learning Advisor

This guide for self-study language learners has reviews and recommendations of language learning methods and products, links to online learning resources, learning tips to maximize your study time and effectiveness and articles on language learning.

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The Twelve Most Useful Second Languages For English Speakers

When the world talks about science, culture, economy or politics, it speaks English. English speakers don't really need a second language at all. So, what's the use of a second language when the first one is enough? English speakers can look for the luxury items: cultural and linguistic enrichment. In this article, I will evaluate the world's major languages for their usefulness to English speakers, according to three different criteria:

1. Demographics: Opportunity to use the language actively: the number of native and second language speakers, and the chances of communicating with them in this language: use as a lingua franca. It's not simply a matter of numbers. Mandarin is by far the most spoken language but it is concentrated in one country, China, and that reduces the impact. In the case of Hindi, educated speakers will very likely also speak English, so the opportunity to speak to people in Hindi is greatly reduced.
2. Personal Impact: This subjective criterion looks at the impact on the learner. How does this language study increase the learner's own sophistication regarding languages, whether English or another, third language? How does this language make the learner a more culturally literate person?
3. Business factors: How will this language open new business and commercial opportunities?

Criterion I. Demographics: I begin with demographics because this is the criterion that first comes to mind in such a discussion. However, this factor only weighs 40 percent in the ratings, and certain entries here, such as Italian, Swahili and Turkish, will only become understandable when one sees the tables that follow.

1. Spanish: Approx. 350 million native speakers, with many second language speakers in the Americas, North Africa and elsewhere. It is the official language of about 20 countries. (6 points). It is an important lingua franca in the Western Hemisphere and the Mediterranean, (3 points). (Total: 9 points).
2. French: Despite a relatively small native language base of 130 million, French has a major presence internationally, with a large second language population all over the world and official language status in over 25 countries. It is the working language of many international organizations (4 points). It is also the most recognized lingua franca, after English. (4 points). (Total: 8 points).
3. Arabic: Arabic speakers are hard to quantify. Modern Standard Arabic is a second dialect for 250 million people worldwide, but it is quite difference from the spoken Arabic in each of the 20 countries where it is official. It is an official language of the United Nations and of many international organizations. It is also the language of Islam. (4.5 points). Arabic is a major lingua franca. (2 points). (Total: 6.5 points).
4. Russian: Estimates are as high as 185 million for the native speaking population, and it is the second language in all the nations of the former Soviet Union (3 points). Russia spent much of the Twentieth Century securing the position of its language as the lingua franca in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, and it continues to serve in that capacity, in a greatly diminished way. (2 points). (Total: 5 points).
5. Mandarin: It's the native language of 875 million people, however, they are concentrated in one country, China. It is a second language for the rest of China, Taiwan, and for Chinese community world-wide. It has little currency beyond its ethnic boundaries and serves as lingua franca only in this context. (Total: 3 points).
6. German: It has approx. 120 million native speakers and many second language speakers throughout Europe. (2 points). It has had moderate success re-establishing itself as the lingua franca of Central Europe, after the disastrous history of the past century, however, this role has been taken up in the meantime by Russian and English (1 point). (Total: 3 points).
7. Hindustani: It includes Urdu at one end and Hindi at the other, with approx. 185 million native speakers in India, and 50 million in Pakistan. It is a second language for another 180 million people in these country. It has not had success as a lingua franca outside of this context, as that purpose is served by English. It has also been burdened by the reluctance of the Dravidian speaking people of South India to adopt it. (Total: 2.5 points).
8. Swahili: It is spoken natively by 5 million people and by another 50 million as a second language along the East African coast. It's the official language of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania (1 point). Swahili is the accepted lingua franca in that area, having achieved nearly neutral "tribal" status on a continent where language is politics, but for dealings with the world beyond, it is normally eclipsed by Arabic, English and French (1.5 points). (Total: 2.5 points).
9. Portuguese: Spoken by approx. 190 million people, it is the official language of Portugal, Brazil, Mozambique, Angola and other states. It has not as yet been able to establish itself as a widely used lingua franca. (Total: 2 points).
10. Turkish: It is spoken by 70 million people in Turkey and Cyprus (1 point). It provides an alternative lingua franca throughout the Turkic speaking lands of Central Asia, replacing the more alien Russian (1 point). (Total: 2 points).
11. Japanese: It is spoken by 125 million people in Japan, but has little currency as a second language or a lingua franca. (Total: 1 point).
12. Italian: It is spoken by 60 million people in Italy, it is also the official language of the Vatican. It has little or no significance as a second language or a lingua franca. (1 point).

Criterion II: Personal Impact: This is the major consideration for the English speaker. It weighs 40 percent in my ratings. How will the learning of this language help one's understanding of English? How will knowledge of this language open up a portal to other related languages? For the first question, Latin languages hold a distinct advantage, since the prestige, erudite forms of English are all constructed out of a Latin vocabulary. The second question favors languages which are seen as leading languages in particular linguistic families, wherever they may be located in the world.

1. French: It holds a particular position among Latin languages, in that it has been the major conduit of Latin vocabulary into English for the past one thousand years. Fully 30 percent of English words come from French, (6 points). In cultural terms, the centrality of France to European civilization cannot be overestimated, adding 6 more points. (Total: 12 points)
2. Spanish: This Latin language has enormous influence on the English of the Americas. It has, in turn, been influenced by Arabic and the indigenous languages of pre-Columbian America, giving insight into those languages. (4 points). Spanish culture continues to move into the forefront of Western civilization, ironically, often because of the patronage of its greatest rival, North American English (4 points). (Total: 8 points).
3. Italian: It is the direct descendant of Latin. Thus, a knowledge of Italian gives the learner an exceptionally clear idea of the classical language. By the same token, it is the central romance language, and the study of a second or third romance language is greatly facilitated when the first one learned is Italian. (4 points). Italian also opens up a store of cultural knowledge dating back two thousand years, and representing, with the Roman Empire, the Catholic tradition and the Italian Renaissance, some of the very highest achievements of European civilization. (4 points). (Total: 8 points).
4. German: The linguistic significance for English speakers is great. German provides a clear presentation of the Germanic roots of English, and of the syntactic and grammatical logic of the basic English language. As the major Germanic language it can also be considered a portal to other Germanic languages such as Dutch and Yiddish. (4 points). German culture is also greatly appreciated in Western culture, and its philosophers and artists are key figures. (2 points). (Total: 6 points).
5. Arabic: Although the immediate linguistic impact of the study of Arabic may be hard to discern for the English speaker, the benefits of Arabic in the study of other languages is high. Arabic has greatly influenced other languages of the Middle East and the Muslim world in religion, politics, and social life. Also, the study of the Arabic alphabet opens the way to many other languages, such as Persian, Urdu, Kurdish, etc. (3 points). Arabic culture has had major influence on western civilization but it remains largely unknown in the English speaking world. Knowledge of the language also leads to a greater understanding of Islam. (2 points). (Total: 5 points).
6. Hindustani: In its Hindi form, it is a window on the origins of the larger Indo-European language family with its Sanskrit vocabulary. As Urdu, it gives a significant introduction to many Persian and Arabic terms. Urdu also uses the Persian form of Arabic script, opening the way to wider studies. It is a starting point for the study of other languages of the subcontinent, an area rich in languages. (3 points). India's rich culture has become more familiar in the English speaking world, in large part due to India's ability to project its image through English. However, Hindustani language and Hindi culture are also spread through the Bollywood film industry. Pakistan has yet to make its presence felt, but the potential is there. (2 point). (Total: 5 points).
7. Russian: It has not had major influence in the west, given its geographical isolation. It is, however, the major Slavic language, and as such, opens the way to many other Eastern European languages. The Cyrillic alphabet, moreover, is a tremendous asset for reading many of those languages. (2 points). Russian high culture thrived under both tsarism and communism, and it has a significant place in European civilization. (2 points). (Total: 4 points).
8. Portuguese: As a Latin language, Portuguese has a built-in significance for English speakers, even without a direct relationship with English. (3 points). The cultural significance of Brazil, one of the largest nations of the Americas, is continually growing. (1 point). (Total: 4 points).
9. Mandarin: The official Chinese language has had very little influence on English. It has influenced other national languages of the areas, such as Korean and Japanese, and the other "dialects" of China. The Chinese written characters are the same for all of these dialects, and many of these characters are used in Japanese as well. (2 points). Chinese culture, with over two thousand years of history, is quite significant, if not directly applicable to English speaking civilization. (1.5 point). (Total: 3.5 points).
10. Swahili: As the only sub-Saharan language in the group, it serves to introduce the learner to one of the richest linguistic areas of the Earth. It is from the Bantu family of languages, but it incorporates many words from Arabic, Persian, English and French. (1.5 points). It is the language of trade along the East African coast, and as such, is richly descriptive of the culture there. The West African diaspora into the Americas is one of the great mass migrations of the past 500 years, but because of its tragic social dynamics, it has left many millions of people cut off from African culture. Swahili, although it is East African and not West African, can help to fill that gap. (1.5 points). (Total: 3 points).
11. Turkish: Though it has little direct relationship to English, it is the major language of a family of languages that extend eastward to the Chinese interior. It has been influenced by Persian, Kurdish and Arabic, and thus gives some introduction to those languages. (1.5 points). It also represents the culture of the Ottoman traditions, and of modern Turkey and Central Asian Turkistan. (1 point). (Total: 2.5 points).
12. Japanese: This language has had little impact on English and it provides little insight into other languages. It does, however, include many words from Chinese, and uses numerous Chinese characters. (0.5 points). This island nation has been one of the most successful exporters of culture of the Far East during the past century. (1.5 points). (Total: 2 points).

Criterion III. Economic Impact. Is this language useful in the world of commerce and business? Certainly English is by far the most useful language for business, but a knowledge of other key languages can be a distinct advantage. Twenty percent in the ratings:

1. French: has a long history as a language of commerce and trade. It is extremely important in the developing world, especially Africa. France itself is the world's sixth largest economy. (4 points).
2. Spanish: the language of commerce and trade in Latin America. Spain is the world's ninth largest economy and Mexico is its fourteenth largest. (4 points).
3. German: often used for business in Central Europe. Germany is the world's third largest economy. (3 points).
4. Japanese: can be extremely helpful in dealing with Japanese business. Japan is the world's second largest economy. (3 points).
5. Mandarin: China has recently become the world's fourth largest economy, and it continues to grow. (3 points).
6. Russian: Used in a part of the world where English is not well-known. Russia is the eleventh largest economy and is moving up in the rankings. (2 points).
7. Portuguese: Brazil is the tenth largest economy, and continues to grow. (2 points).
8. Arabic: the language of commerce and trade for the Middle East and the Persian Gulf. (2 points).
9. Hindustani: is used in the world's twelfth largest economy, however, English is often the language of business in this area. (2 points).
10. Italian: is the language of commerce in Italy, the world's seventh largest economy. (1.5 points).
11. Swahili: is the language of business along the east coast of Africa. (1 point).
12. Turkish: is used in the world's seventeenth largest economy, and to some extent in Central Asia. (1 point).

By these criteria we can come up with a ranking of the 12 most useful languages for an English speaker to learn:

1. French: 24 points
2. Spanish: 21 points
3. Arabic: 13.5 points
4. German: 12 points
5. Russian: 11 points
6. Italian: 10.5 points
7. Hindustani 9.5 points
8. Mandarin: 9.5 points
9. Portuguese: 8 points
10. Swahili: 6.5 points
11. Japanese: 5.5 points
12. Turkish: 5.5 points

Some readers may be familiar with George Weber's well-known piece entitled, Top Languages, which first appeared in the journal Languages Today in 1997. His study rated languages according to their influence in world affairs and world culture. It is interesting, at this point to compare them. Here are Weber's results:

1. English: 37 points
2. French: 23
3. Spanish: 20
4. Russian: 16
5. Arabic: 14
6. Chinese: 13
7. German: 12
8. Japanese: 10
9. Portuguese: 10
10. Hindi/Urdu: 9 pts.

The rankings are similar, with some major differences. My criteria are based on tangible and intangible benefits for the English speaker which are not heavily weighed in Weber's paradigm. Thus, this subjective focus skewers my results in favor of European languages due to the cultural affinity of English for the languages of Western civilization.

Heritage Languages: The most striking example of a difference is my ranking of Italian as number 6, whereas it does not figure in Weber's top ten. My justification for Italian is the phenomenon of the "heritage language", i.e., a language that has usefulness in our understanding and appreciation of the past, rather than in the future. Italian is the vehicle for our understanding of ancient history, the development of Latin languages, Renaissance Art and classical music. It is also the ancestral language of over 100 million people strategically placed in both North and South America. For these reasons, it is the heritage language par excellence. Other languages that benefit from this heritage factor in my listings are German and Swahili.

Point values for English? French, with 24 points, is number one in my listing. Where does English stand in relation? If rating it for usefulness for speakers of other languages, I would give it 10 points in each category, for a total of 50 points. I think that the extraordinary position of English in today's world is indisputable, and considering it to be twice as useful as its closest competition, French, is not a great stretch of the imagination.

The only English point assignment that may require explanation is ten points for linguistic value. The value of English in this area for world speakers is quite wide reaching and significant. English is the vehicle for the spread of the classical Latin vocabulary for abstract concepts, for the Greco-Roman terms for government, science, philosophy, etc. It absorbs world vocabulary without major spelling changes, effectively spreading new terminology from a variety of sources. As the official language of international organizations, it serves as a showplace for each nation and organization to present itself to the world. Like the other "empire" languages of Western Europe, French and Spanish, English is propagated by native speakers worldwide with no ethnic, social or political relationship to its motherland. But English goes one step further, English is capable of evolving and developing completely independently of its native speakers. Second language users of English drive the introduction of new words like "informatics" and "ufology" which gain currency first among these speakers. Foreign governments keep close control of their English language nomenclature, and make changes through the United Nations and non-government organizations. These changes are therefore immediate in English, with no consultation with native speakers necessary. While some European languages are still calling the capital of China "Peking", English made the switch to "Beijing" during the late 1980s (for proof, look at contemporary reports regarding the Tian an Men Square events of June, 1989). Recently, the switch from Bombay to Mumbai has happened before most English speakers have even noticed.

Conclusion - The status of English in world affairs puts its native speakers in a unique position. We have the opportunity of living in a provincial English-only environment in which the world comes to us, or we can take advantage of this favored position to become acquainted with other cultures right within our own language. So, is any second language really useful for English speakers? No study can ever really measure the personal importance of second language learning. That is something we have to discover for ourselves. The fact is that every language is well worth the effort to learn, as every language is a complete way of describing the universe of human achievement, and thus it's significance is as wide and as deep as we personally make it.

Note on Statistics: The statistics that I have used (population, economic ranking, etc.) come from diverse sources: world almanacs, encyclopedias, US government studies. I make no claims about their accuracy, as they are general estimates. Their importance is in relationship to each other.

Dominic Ambrose has taught languages for over twenty years, from Middle School to Community College, from adult ed to ESL to TOEFL training. He has also traveled as a teacher educator to many Eastern European countries as well as South America, including three years with the Romanian Ministry of Education. Presently, he lives in Paris writing full time, mostly about films and fiction, but he is still fascinated by languages. To see his blog, click on the link: http://dominicambrose.wordpress.com

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